The
character of the crusader states was defined not by the natives who had
been there before and adapted to many conquerors, nor by the transients
who came and went, but by the men and women of Western origin and Latin
faith who
made the Holy Land their home. In the beginning, their numbers were
tiny. Only
an estimated 15 per cent of the surviving crusaders, or as few as 2,000
to
4,000 men, remained in the East at the end of the First Crusade.
However,
immigration to the Holy Land began almost at once, so that by the end of
King
Baldwin IV’s reign, an estimated 140,000 to 150,000 Western European
immigrants
had settled in Outremer, making up as much as 25% of the population.
At the apex
of Frankish society were the nobles and knights, the feudal elite drawn from
the second or third tier of the European nobility, mostly from France,
Normandy, and the Holy Roman Empire. Kings, Dukes and Counts came on crusade,
but rarely did they stay in the Holy Land. Their vassals, on the other hand,
often did. Some of these men came from landowning families with regional
influence and reputation, such as Godfrey de Bouillon, Raymond de Toulouse,
Henri de Champagne and John de Brienne. Many others were the younger sons and
brothers, or the castellans and stewards and household officials of the hereditary
lords. Similarly, the majority of Outremer’s knights, i.e. the knights that
remained in the East, had not been fief-holders at home but rather household
knights or freelancers; men without either land or livery.
Frankish
society also had an exceptionally large clerical component. The Latin Church
maintained two patriarchs (Jerusalem and Antioch), six archbishops, and
twenty-three bishops in the crusader states — all with their respective cannons
and clerical support apparatus. These clerics, however, represented only the
tip of the iceberg. The Holy Land naturally attracted men with a religious
vocation, and all the various monastic orders hastened to establish houses near
the important shrines of Christianity. Thus, in addition to the militant orders,
there were Augustine, Benedictine, Premonstratensian, Cistercian, Carmelite,
Dominican and Franciscan houses operating in Frankish states by the end of the
era. Altogether, 121 different monastic sites have been identified in the
former Kingdom of Jerusalem. Also, 360 Latin churches have been discovered,
roughly evenly divided between rural and urban locations.[i] In
the immediate vicinity of Jerusalem, it is believed that approximately 50 per
cent of the Frankish population was composed of churchmen.
The rest of
the Frankish population, the commoners, were all freemen; there were no serfs
in the crusader states — not even among the native populace in rural villages.
Outremer’s peasant farmers did not owe feudal services but instead paid fixed
(and comparatively low) rents. Unlike Europe, where the ‘commons’ or ‘Third
Estate’ was fractured, merchants and tradesmen consciously viewing themselves
as superior to peasants, the non-noble Frankish population of the crusader
states appears to have enjoyed a common identity as ‘burgesses’. They were
recognised as a separate and distinct ‘order’ as early as 1110. Furthermore,
the burgesses, whether urban or rural, were integrated into Frankish society
and government to an astonishing degree. Their presence and consent was
considered necessary ‘not only when the bourgeois were directly concerned’.[ii]
For example, the coronation ceremony of the Lusignan kings, which was probably
modeled on that of the kings of Jerusalem, required the officiating prelate to
ask the ‘prelates, barons, knights, liegemen, burgesses and representatives of
the people who were present for their approval’ before anointing the monarch.[iii]
Prominent burgesses were also included on the witness lists of kings and
nobles, something not usual at this time in Western Europe.
The notably
higher status for the bourgeois is probably attributable to the fact that the
origins of the class lay in the foot soldiers of the First Crusade; they had
been the comrades-in-arms of the nobles who founded the crusader states. Those
who came later as settlers constituted the yeoman class that contributed
sergeants of the Frankish armies. They
manned the garrisons of cities and castles and provided archers and pikemen to
the feudal host. As will be discussed later under military institutions, the
nature of warfare in the Near East in the twelfth century made knights
exceptionally dependent on the infantry for survival and success. They could
not afford to alienate men who were essential to their military survival and
consequently accorded them an exceptional degree of respect.
In the
countryside, the Franks founded hundreds of new settlements with distinctive
features that distinguished them from the settlements of the natives. The
architecture of these rural Frankish settlements was closer to the urban
middle-class architecture of the same period in Western Europe. They were
mostly multistorey structures constructed of stone, sometimes with undercrofts
and staircases, usually with rooftop water collection and cisterns fed by
piping, plastered interior walls, and often with chimney fireplaces. These
features made them luxurious by European standards of the period and
highlighted the affluence and self-esteem of the burgesses of Outremer.
Significantly,
rural Frankish settlements were far more common than previously assumed. For
more than a century, it was assumed that the Latin settlers were concentrated
in the urban centres, predominantly on the coast of the Levant. The traditional
nineteenth- and twentieth-century interpretation of Frankish society in the
Holy Land hypothesised a decadent urban elite, collecting rents from oppressed
native farmers. According to historians of the last century, the Franks were
afraid to venture into the hostile environment of the countryside, not only
because of an ‘ever-present’ Saracen threat but also because they were hated by
their tenants and subjects. Some historians such as Joshua Prawer did not
hesitate to draw parallels between Frankish rule in Palestine/Syria and
apartheid in South Africa.
However, in
his seminal work, ‘Frankish Rural Settlement in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem’
(Cambridge University Press, 1998), Professor Ronnie Ellenblum catalogued and
collated findings to present a radically different picture. Ellenblum’s work
has since been complemented by additional studies, surveys and research on the
part of a new generation of scholars. Together, this research confirms that the
Frankish rural presence was much more widespread than had been previously
assumed. More than 700 Frankish towns and villages have been identified, making
it impossible to characterise Frankish society in the twelfth century as urban.
Furthermore,
the bulk of these smaller towns and villages had no walls or fortifications of
any kind, a clear indication that the Franks did not feel threatened. Far from
fearing invasions, much less riots or violence on the part of their neighbours,
the Franks felt secure enough to make major long-term investments. Alongside
the hundreds of parish churches, manors and farmhouses were mills, irrigation,
terracing and roads.
Equally
important, contemporary research shows the Frankish settlers did not displace
the local inhabitants, expelling them from their land and houses. They did not
deprive them of their land, livelihood or status. On the contrary, the
documentary evidence demonstrates that the Franks were fastidious in recording
and respecting the rights of the native inhabitants. Rather than displacing the
locals, they built villages and towns in abandoned, previously unsettled areas
or, more commonly, beside existing towns. The native pattern of settlement was
to locate towns and villages in valleys, whereas the Franks built a
castle/manor on hills or heights. Frankish farmers settled at the foot of this
administrative centre. The older towns and villages were left intact, along
with the ownership of the land cultivated by the native inhabitants. This meant
the Frankish settlers were integrated with the native Christian population,
often sharing churches as well as markets, ovens, mills and wine and oil
presses. That, combined with the fact that there is no evidence whatsoever of
residential segregation based on nationality or religion in the nineteen large
cities in which the Franks lived, discredits Prawer’s thesis of an apartheid
society.
Regarding the
inhabitants of these villages, documents show that a high proportion of the
Frankish settlers in these rural areas were skilled tradesmen. This is probably
because most peasants (not to mention serfs) felt a strong bond to the land and
little interest in emigration. In the Holy Land, the building trades such as
carpenters, masons and blacksmiths, appear to be particularly well represented,
but the data sample is too small to make sweeping generalizations. Certainly, a
wide range of trades was embodied. In addition to the building trades, these
included silversmiths, bakers, butchers, vintners, drovers and herdsmen,
cobblers and (former) servants. Whatever these men had been in the past, in
Outremer, they leased out farms and become free peasant farmers, except for
those tradesmen such as the baker, butcher and tavern keeper, who supplied
services to the local community.
The national
origin of the settlers was nearly as diverse as their professions. French
settlers, mainly from Southern France but also from Burgundy, Champagne and the
Isle de France, were most numerous, and a northern dialect of French became the
lingua franca of the mainland crusader states. However, documents show there
were also significant numbers of immigrants from Italy and Spain as well as
settlers from Scotland, England, Bohemia, Bulgaria and Hungary. Whatever their
background, the immigrants to Outremer adopted for themselves the term first
used by the Byzantines and Saracens to describe them. That is, ‘Frangoi’
(Greek) or ‘al-Ifranj’ (Arabic). The settlers translated these terms into Latin
as ‘Franci’ and into French as ‘Franc’ and used it to describe themselves.
More modern
waves of voluntary emigration to America, Australia and South Africa
demonstrate that emigrants who choose to go to a ‘new’ country usually do so
with a psychological willingness to create a new identity. In the case of the
settlers in the Holy Land, integration and intermarriage with the local
population further contributed to the creation of a new identity at an
astonishing rate. Writing no later than 1127, the cleric, Fulcher of Chartres
wrote:
We who were occidentals have now
become orientals… . We have already forgotten the places of our birth… . Some
have taken wives not only of their own people but Syrians or Armenians or even
Saracens who have obtained the grace of baptism… . Words of different languages
have become common property known to each nationality, and mutual faith unites
those who are ignorant of their descent… . He who was born a stranger is now as
one born here; he who was born an alien has become a native.[iv]
The children
of these settlers, especially the children of mixed marriages, were no longer
Europeans or crusaders. They considered themselves Franks. Later generations of
crusaders referred to them by the derogatory term ‘poulains’, which is best
translated as ‘half-breeds’; it certainly held racist connotations. The racism
of the Europeans remained a distinguishing feature of the transient population,
yet it was strikingly not a characteristic of the Franks of Outremer.
[i]
Denys Pringle, ‘Churches and Settlement in Crusader Palestine’, in The
Experience of Crusading: Defining the Crusader Kingdom, eds. Peter Edbury
and Jonathan Phillips (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 177.
[ii]
Hans Eberhard Mayer, ‘Latins, Muslims and Greeks in the Latin Kingdom of
Jerusalem’ in Probleme des lateinischen Koenigreichs Jerusalem (London:
Variorum Reprints, 1983), VI-176.
[iii]
Chris Schabel, Cyprus: Society and Culture 1191-1374, eds. Angel Nicolaou-Konnari and Chris Schabel (Leiden: Brill,
2005), 181.
[iv]
Fulcher of Chartes in The Crusades: A Reader, eds. S.J. Allen and Emilie
Amt (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014), 88-89.
The bulk of this entry is an excerpt from Dr. Schrader's comprehensive study of the crusader states.
Dr.
Helena P. Schrader is also the author of six books set in the Holy Land
in the Era of the Crusades.
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